Publication date: 11th March 2026
Crystallization kinetics critically influence the formation of smooth, compact, and defect-free perovskite films by controlling nucleation density and crystal growth. In this study, a chelating agent is introduced either into the perovskite precursor or during antisolvent treatment, exhibiting distinct interactions with the perovskite lattice depending on the incorporation method and thereby modulating nucleation, crystal growth, and defect passivation. Systematic optimization of the chelating agent enables effective coordination with undercoordinated Pb²⁺ sites, suppressing halide vacancies and reducing nonradiative recombination. Morphological and structural analyses show that the treated films possess fewer pinholes, smoother surfaces, and larger, more uniform grains, resulting from controlled nucleation and crystallization. Surface potential measurements reveal improved interfacial energy alignment, promoting efficient charge transfer, while fluorescence quantum yield studies confirm a significant reduction in trap states and reduced radiative recombination, reflecting high film quality. Consequently, the optimized devices achieve a power conversion efficiency of ~ 24%, with an open-circuit voltage of 1.13 V and a fill factor above 82%, and unencapsulated devices retain around 90% of their initial performance after 500 hours under ambient conditions, demonstrating excellent stability. This work highlights that precise control of nucleation, crystallization, and interfacial defect passivation is a powerful strategy for producing pinhole-free, high-quality perovskite films and simultaneously enhancing the efficiency and long-term stability of inverted perovskite solar cells, offering valuable guidance for the design of next-generation photovoltaics.
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