Publication date: 11th March 2026
The advancement of all-printed carbon-based hole-transport-layer-free perovskite photovoltaics represents a major step toward scalable, sustainable and cost-effective next-generation solar power devices. Within this framework, piezoelectric drop-on-demand inkjet printing provides a powerful digital manufacturing route, enabling precise, reproducible and high-throughput deposition of functional layers under ambient-air conditions. In this work, a sustainable upscaling of carbon-based perovskite solar modules is demonstrated, using piezoelectric drop-on-demand inkjet printing as the primary deposition method for nearly all functional layers. For this case, a high-stability perovskite precursor ink from centimeter-scale single crystals and green solvents is prepared and employed to develop the perovskite active layer, while a newly engineered carbon paste is also introduced to fabricate an efficient and scalable back-contact electrode, applied via blade coating. The fabricated modules achieved efficiencies exceeding 12% on 1500 cm² (upscaling loses 8<%reldec−1, geometrical fill factor ≈70%), with the “bill of materials” and efficiency-adjusted specific costs to be estimated on the order of 30 €/m² and 0.5 €/Wp, respectively, highlighting the cost-effectiveness and scalability of the proposed manufacturing approach. Beyond performance, a comprehensive stability analysis is conducted under ISOS accelerated aging protocols, including light soaking stress, prolonged isothermal fatigue, thermal shock cycling, damp heat and bias stress. The degradation behavior was complemented by predictive modelling using a semi-analytical model developed by one of the authors, enabling accurate forecasting of the lifetime of the devices under different stress conditions, supporting their technological maturation toward real-world photovoltaic deployment.
The work is supported by the action: "Promotion of quality, innovation and extroversion in universities (ID 16289)", "SUB1.1 Clusters of Research Excellence - CREs" and funded by the Special Account of the Ministry of Education, Religious Affairs and Sports within the framework of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan “Greece 2.0”, with funding from the European Union – NextGenerationEU and co-financing from national resources (National Public Investments Program – VAT contribution).
[Project: Bifacial Photovoltaic modules made of perovskite materials with variable transparency for greenhouse applications (BiPSC4Agri), Grant No. ΥΠ3ΤΑ-0559425].
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