Optimization of Perovskite Solar Cells for Underwater Photovoltaic Applications

Quanrun QIU^a, Lingyi KE^a, Hin Lap YIP^a^,^b^,^c

^aDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, China

^bHong Kong Institute for Clean Energy, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, China

^cSchool of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, China

Proceedings of International Conference on Hybrid and Organic Photovoltaics (HOPV26)

Uppsala, Sweden, 2026 May 18th - 20th

Organizers: Gerrit Boschloo, Ellen Moons, Feng Gao and Anders Hagfeldt

Poster, Quanrun QIU, 199
Publication date: 11th March 2026

Global renewable energy research is progressively expanding from terrestrial systems to marine environments, driven by the vast spatial resources of the oceans and their minimal impact on human living areas. [1] Underwater photovoltaics (UPV) is emerging not only for floating platforms but also for powering autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) and distributed sensor networks. [2] However, conventional silicon photovoltaics experience severe efficiency losses underwater due to spectral filtering by water, [3-4] which largely restricts usable photons to the 400–700 nm visible range. [5] In contrast, perovskite solar cells (PSCs), with their intrinsic bandgap tunability, enable composition engineering tailored to depth-dependent underwater spectrum, offering higher theoretical efficiency limits. [1,6] Building on these advantages, high-efficiency PSCs optimized for underwater environments are developed through bandgap and device architecture engineering in this project, and their application potential for UPV is systematically evaluated.

Underwater spectral characteristics and corresponding efficiency limits are first investigated. A high-precision, AAA-grade underwater spectral simulation platform was established using multi-channel LEDs to standardize underwater photovoltaic evaluation by accurately replicating depth-dependent environmental optical characteristics. [7] Through complementary modelling, the theoretical efficiency limits of single-junction, two-terminal, and four-terminal tandem PSCs are calculated across different water depths, providing quantitative guidance for optimal bandgap selection and structural design.

Stability challenges of wide-bandgap (WBG) perovskite cells are systematically examined, as these materials are well suited for underwater applications but prone to light-induced phase segregation. [8-9] Targeted passivation strategies are implemented via additive engineering to achieve synergistic passivation of vacancy and interstitial defects, thereby suppressing Frenkel pair formation and mitigating light-induced phase segregation, [10-11] improving the operational stability of WBG PSCs under illumination conditions.

Device performance is further evaluated under depth-varying simulated illumination to verify operational feasibility across underwater environment. The optimized WBG PSC achieves an underwater power conversion efficiency (PCE) approaching 50% under a simulated underwater spectrum with a depth of 9m, meeting the energy supply requirements of long-duration underwater sensor systems. In addition, perovskite/organic tandem devices designed for near-surface operation (0–1 m) achieve a PCE above 27% at 1 m water depth. Compared with single-junction WBG perovskite devices, the tandem architecture exhibits a relative PCE enhancement of over 30% at corresponding depths, highlighting its suitability for variable-depth AUVs requiring rapid and adaptive energy harvesting.

In summary, this work integrates underwater spectral modeling and efficiency limit analysis with stability optimization for WBG perovskite devices, providing a comprehensive framework for matching photovoltaic configurations to specific underwater applications.

References:

[1] Röhr, J. A., Sartor, B. E., Lipton, J., & Taylor, A. D. (2023). A dive into underwater solar cells. Nature Photonics, 17(9), 747-754.

[2] Bai, H., Lu, T., Liu, W., Li, X., Lv, W., & Lv, S. (2025). Maximizing underwater energy harvesting efficiency using flexible solar cells: A pathway to sustainable ocean power. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(15), e2423651122.

[3] Naaz, N., Dutta, S., Goel, S., & Ramaswamy, K. (2025). Calibrating underwater photovoltaic performance: Demonstration using monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon solar cells. Renewable Energy, 247, 122993.

[4] Enaganti, P. K., & Goel, S. (2021). Investigation of Silicon Solar Cells under Submerged Conditions with the Influence of Various Parameters: A Comparative Study. Energy Technology, 9(7), 2100018.

[5] Röhr, J. A., Lipton, J., Kong, J., Maclean, S. A., & Taylor, A. D. (2020). Efficiency Limits of Underwater Solar Cells. Joule, 4(4), 840-849.

[6] Jenkins, P., Messenger, S., Trautz, K., Maximenko, S., Goldstein, D., Scheiman, D., & Hoheisel, R. (2014). High-Bandgap Solar Cells for Underwater Photovoltaic Applications. Photovoltaics, IEEE Journal of, 4, 202-207.

[7] Zhang, A., Sartor, B. E., Röhr, J. A., & Taylor, A. D. (2024). LED-based characterization of solar cells for underwater applications. STAR Protocols, 5(1), 102833.

[8] An, Y., Zhang, N., Zeng, Z., Cai, Y., Jiang, W., Qi, F., Ke, L., Lin, F. R., Tsang, S.-W., Shi, T., Jen, A. K.-Y., & Yip, H.-L. (2024). Optimizing Crystallization in Wide-Bandgap Mixed Halide Perovskites for High-Efficiency Solar Cells. Advanced Materials,

[9] Wang, L., Wang, N., Wu, X., Liu, B., Liu, Q., Li, B., Zhang, D., Kalasariya, N., Zhang, Y., Yan, X., Wang, J., Zheng, P., Yang, J., Jin, H., Wang, C., Qian, L., Yang, B., Wang, Y., Cheng, X.,…Zhu, Z. (2025). Highly Efficient Monolithic Perovskite/TOPCon Silicon Tandem Solar Cells Enabled by “Halide Locking”. Advanced Materials, 37(7), 2416150.

[10] Ball, J. M., & Petrozza, A. (2016). Defects in perovskite-halides and their effects in solar cells. Nature Energy, 1(11), 16149.

[11] Sabino, F. P., Dalpian, G. M., & Zunger, A. (2023). Light-Induced Frenkel Defect Pair Formation Can Lead to Phase-Segregation of Otherwise Miscible Halide Perovskite Alloys. Advanced Energy Materials, 13(44), 2301539.

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