Publication date: 11th March 2026
Hybrid organic–inorganic perovskites, such as methylammonium lead Iodide (MAPbI₃), have attracted significant attention for photovoltaic applications due to their excellent optoelectronic properties and ease of solution processing. However, their stability under ambient conditions remains a major challenge, as exposure to light and humidity triggers material degradation. Understanding the early stages and spatial heterogeneity of degradation at the nanoscale is therefore essential to improve device performance and longevity.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements reveal that degradation proceeds non-uniformly across the surface, forming labyrinth-like topographic patterns, with certain grains degrading faster than others. Macroscopic X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis indicates that these rapidly degrading grains preferentially exhibit a {100} crystallographic orientation.1 Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) mapping of the film reveals variations in contact potential difference (CPD) among the grains, even in fresh samples, indicating compositional heterogeneity across the film. Contrast in CPD also provides early detection of degradation that is not yet visible in topography. This correlative AFM–KPFM measurement enables tracking of individual grains over time, highlighting the relationship between morphological and electronic changes during degradation. Over time, the surface evolves toward a more uniform potential contrast, indicating progressive degradation, which is sensitively captured by KPFM. Analysis of the voltage variations between grain interiors (GIs) and grain boundaries (GBs) also suggests that degradation preferentially initiates at the GBs.2 These results demonstrate that KPFM could be a valuable and effective tool for probing the onset and progression of perovskite degradation, offering insights to improve material stability.
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