Publication date: 15th May 2026
Organic–inorganic hybrid perovskites, particularly methylammonium lead iodide (CH₃NH₃PbI₃, MAPbI₃), are promising photoactive materials for photovoltaic applications due to their excellent light-harvesting capability, long carrier diffusion length, and solution-processable fabrication. However, pinhole formation, uncontrolled crystallization, and defect-rich grain boundaries continue to limit the reproducibility, efficiency, and stability of perovskite solar cells. Controlling crystallisation dynamics with suitable additives and anti-solvent treatment is therefore essential for obtaining compact, defect-minimised films.
In this study, a novel 2,4-diamino-6-phenyl-1,3,5-triazine-linked naphthalene diimide compound (t-NDI) was synthesized and used as an additive in the MAPbI₃ precursor system. Combined with a precisely timed toluene antisolvent washing step, this approach regulated nucleation and crystal growth under ambient conditions, eliminating the need for an inert argon atmosphere. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and photoluminescence (PL) analyses confirmed improved crystallinity, enlarged crystal domains, and reduced defect density. Additive-free devices exhibited a short-circuit current density (Jsc) of 24.5 mA cm⁻², an open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 1.025 V, a fill factor (FF) of 0.62, and a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 15.5%. In contrast, t-NDI-containing devices showed a Jsc of 23.1 mA cm⁻², a Voc of 1.036 V, an improved FF of 0.69, and a higher PCE of 16.5%. The performance enhancement was mainly attributed to the improved fill factor upon incorporation of the t-NDI additive. These findings demonstrate a simple, scalable, and experimentally accessible strategy for fabricating high-quality MAPbI₃ films for efficient perovskite solar cells under ambient conditions.
The authors gratefully acknowledge Eastern Mediterranean University for Institutional support.
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