Publication date: 5th November 2025
We developed an efficient and scalable hole transport layer (HTL) stack for perovskite–silicon tandem solar cells by combining sputtered nickel oxide (NiOx) with an evaporated self-assembled monolayer (Me-4PACz). Kelvin probe (KP) measurements show that NiOx/evaporated SAM achieves a work function of 5.25 eV, higher than NiOx/solution-processed SAM (5.14 eV) and NiOx alone (4.45 eV), facilitating better hole extraction in the solar cells. Conductive atomic force microscopy (c-AFM) further confirms that NiOx/evaporated SAM exhibits the lowest leakage current among all HTL configurations. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) analysis reveals stronger shifts in the Ni 2p and O 1s peaks for the NiOx/evaporated SAM, indicating stronger interfacial bonding compared with solution-processed SAM. These improvements translate directly into device performance. Monolithic 2-terminal perovskite–silicon tandem cells using NiOx/evaporated SAM achieve a champion efficiency of 29.6% on 1-cm² devices, outperforming tandems with NiOx/solution-processed SAM (28.4%) and NiOx alone (26.4%). This work demonstrates a scalable and industry-compatible HTL architecture that advances the commercialisation readiness of high-efficiency perovskite–silicon tandem solar cells.
This work was supported by the Australian Government through the Australian Renewable Energy Agency. Responsibility for the views, information, or advice expressed herein is not accepted by the Australian Government. Part of the experiment was conducted at the ACT Node of the Australian National Fabrication Facility.
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