Publication date: 15th December 2025
Tin perovskite solar cells are emerging as the most promising non-toxic alternative to lead perovskites due to their suitable band gap and excellent charge transport properties. However, their performance still lags behind lead perovskites, primarily due to the low energy barrier of Sn2+ oxidation. A key contributor to this oxidation is the use of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), the solvent widely used for tin-PSCs processing. Although it regulates the crystallisation dynamics, it oxidises Sn2+ to Sn4+, which results in self p-doping, limiting the performance of tin-PSCs. Besides, it also induces several detrimental effects, such as catalysing the deprotonation of A-site cations, promoting interfacial void formation, and facilitating iodine extraction from the perovskite film, eventually leading to device degradation. Therefore, DMSO-free processing route is crucial for efficient tin-PSCs. We have demonstrated an alternative solvent system, a mixture of DEF (N,N-Diethylformamide) and DMPU (N,N′-Dimethylpropyleneurea) for tin-PSC fabrication, which can completely supress the Sn2+ oxidation. [1,2] Although this DMSO-free route mitigates chemical instability, it introduces challenges in crystallisation control, often leading to poor film microstructure. Therefore, we employ various approaches such as composition, additive, and interface engineering to control the crystallisation dynamics and minimise the defect formation. Recently, we have achieved PCE of 10.7% by substituting formamidinium with methylammonium cation, which suppresses the lone pair expression and enhances the efficiency. Importantly, it retains 100% of initial PCE after 500 hours of day-night cycling, indicating excellent long-term operational stability. These findings highlight the crucial role of DMSO removal for achieving stable tin perovskite solar cells.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding provided by the Italian Ministry of University and Scientific Research (MUR) for supporting the project ″Metal Halide Perovskite Single Crystals for Solar Cells″ (MASTER) (Bando 2022 PNRR, Decreto Direttoriale n. 1409 del 14-9-2022, Prot. P2022ZYTJY). This work was further supported by the Italian Ministry of Environment and Energy Security through the Project GoPV (CSEAA_00011) for Research on the Electric System. Additionally, we acknowledge funding for the project ″Sustainable Perovskite Solar Cells for the Internet of Things towards the Development of Smart Cities″ (SOLARNET), CUP H43C22000550001, under the PNRR Measure 4 Component 2 Investment 1.5, Research and Innovation Program ″MUSA-Multilayered Urban Sustainability Action,″ Identification Code ECS_00000037, funded by the European Union - NextGenerationEU.
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