Publication date: 15th December 2025
Over the past few decades, perovskite solar cells (PSCs), have rapidly emerged as a leading next generation photovoltaic (PV) technology, helping the world reduce its dependence on fossil fuels. Owing to their tunable bandgaps, overall low manufacturing cost and power conversion efficiency capabilities reaching 27.3%, as well as their compatibility with scalable fabrication techniques, they have become a promising alternative to traditionally used silicon-based PV. [1,2]
However, PSCs remain somewhat limited by intrinsic instability, making them susceptible to degradation by oxygen, moisture, heat and prolonged illumination, resulting in short operational lifetimes. [1] The presence of toxic materials, such as lead, coupled with the use of finite raw materials has deemed essential the establishment of a robust end-of-life management strategy prior to their commercialisation. [3] To mitigate those challenges, a recycling approach must be integrated into PSC development, while retaining and reusing the conductive tin oxide (TCO) and electron transport layer (ETL), which have been found to account for the majority of the embodied energy, manufacturing cost and materials CO2 contributions. [4]
To date, PSC recycling has mostly relied on the utilisation of DMF, a toxic, harmful to human and environmental health solvent, that is facing increasing restrictions in the EU. [5] This work presents a simplified and scalable one-step recycling procedure using a variety of green solvents, which are characterised by lower toxicity, reduced volatility and improved biodegradability and can be gentler on the underlying layers which are intended for reuse, compared to DMF. [6,7] The use of such solvent blends, with an overall reduced environmental impact, can minimize hazardous waste generation and are not circumscribed by occupational exposure limits. [3] Thus far, our results identify promising candidates that lead to efficient substrate/ETL recovery for planar TiO2 devices, while maintaining device performance to a greater degree than DMF. Therefore, this approach can offer potential benefits for both device stability and environmental sustainability of remanufacturing protocols.
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