Inverted p–i–n perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as leading candidates for next-generation photovoltaics due to their high-power conversion efficiencies (PCEs), low-temperature processing, reduced hysteresis and compatibility with tandem architectures. However, most high-performance devices continue to rely on thermally evaporated Ag or Au top electrodes. Beyond the cost and vacuum-processing requirements associated with these contacts, the use of precious metals raises concerns regarding material availability, electrode-induced degradation and the long-term scalability of perovskite photovoltaics. 

Here, we demonstrate solution-processed graphene-enhanced carbon electrodes for high-performance p–i–n PSCs, achieving PCEs above 20%. The developed conductive carbon inks combine high electrical conductivity with low-temperature processing and can be cured at temperatures as low as 100 °C, providing a straightforward route towards replacing vacuum-deposited metal contacts with scalable solution-based electrodes. 

Importantly, the performance improvement is accompanied by a device stability study directly comparing otherwise equivalent Ag- and carbon-electrode PSCs. The results demonstrate the potential of graphene-enhanced carbon contacts not only to deliver photovoltaic performance approaching that of conventional metal electrodes, but also to address degradation pathways associated with reactive and mobile metallic contacts. The combination of photovoltaic performance and stability therefore provides a compelling basis for further development of carbon contacts for scalable p–i–n devices. 

Beyond device performance, carbon electrodes offer an important pathway towards reducing the bill of materials (BoM) and manufacturing complexity of perovskite photovoltaics. Their formulation from abundant carbon-based materials, together with solution deposition, low-temperature curing and the elimination of vacuum-deposited precious-metal electrodes, provides opportunities to reduce both material and processing costs. These characteristics are particularly attractive for large-area manufacturing, where material availability, processing energy and production throughput become increasingly important. 

Our results demonstrate that graphene-enhanced carbon electrodes are no longer restricted to low-cost alternatives for moderate-performance PSCs, but can provide a viable electrode platform for >20% efficient, stable and industrially scalable perovskite photovoltaics. This work highlights the potential of engineered carbon materials to simultaneously address efficiency, stability, manufacturability and materials sustainability on the pathway towards commercial perovskite solar technologies.