Publication date: 22nd July 2026
Despite rapid progress in small-area perovskite solar cells, translating high efficiencies into large-area monolithic modules remains a central challenge for commercial deployment. Here, we frame the cell-to-module gap as a property-distribution problem: a sub-centimetre cell statistically averages local variations in film quality, whereas a series-interconnected module is constrained by its least-performing sub-cell. Controlling spatial optoelectronic heterogeneity is therefore essential for scalable perovskite photovoltaics.
To address this bottleneck, we introduce a multi-functional crystallization-directing molecular additive into blade-coated perovskite precursor inks. The additive drives the formation of a large-grained, phase-pure absorber and improves optoelectronic uniformity across module-relevant areas. This strategy increases the active-area power-conversion efficiency from 22.0% to 23.0% for 0.125 cm2 cells, from 19.0% to 21.3% for 3.9 cm2 devices, from 17.8% to 21.2% for 15.5 cm2 mini-modules, and from 13.7% to 19.0% for 100 cm2 monolithic modules. Notably, the efficiency gain widens monotonically with area — from +1.0 percentage point in small cells to +5.3 percentage points in 100 cm2 modules — reducing the absolute upscaling loss by a factor of 2.1.
The origin of this scale-dependent improvement is supported by multi-scale characterization. Large-area photoluminescence imaging reveals enhanced spatial uniformity, linking crystallization control to reduced property dispersion. Correlative scanning electron microscopy–cathodoluminescence shows a recrystallized large-grain population and suppressed secondary PbI2 formation, and solid-state 2D 1H–1H spin-diffusion nuclear magnetic resonance confirms that the additive–perovskite lattice interaction is maintained across the relevant length scales.
Encapsulated mini-modules also show strong operational and environmental durability, retaining approximately 90% of their initial efficiency after 1000 h damp heat (85 °C, 85% relative humidity) and approximately 92% after 500 thermal cycles (−40 °C to 85 °C). Under outdoor open-circuit ageing in Nicosia, Cyprus, an encapsulated 4 cm2 mini-module retained 85.2% of its initial efficiency over 159 days.
These results show that closing the cell-to-module gap requires controlling not only average film quality but also the spatial distribution of optoelectronic properties — a chemically tractable design principle for stable, manufacturable perovskite photovoltaics.
This work has received funding as part of the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme under grant agreement no. 101147311 of the LAPERITIVO project, grant agreement no. 101079488 of the TESTARE project, grant agreement no. 101291137 of the TRANSPIRE project and grant agreement no. 101120397 of the Approach project. Z.-F.H. acknowledges funding from the National Science and Technology Council (114-2917-I-564-018). A.K.H. acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 101153019.
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