Publication date: 22nd July 2026
Tin-based perovskite films crystallize at a faster rate than that of lead-based perovskites, resulting in the smaller grain sizes and inhomogeneous film formation. Larger grain sizes and less pinholes with homogeneous film formation are desired to obtain highly efficient working tin-based perovskite solar cells (Sn-PSCs). Addition of additives in the bulk perovskite ink is one commonly used method to enhance the grain sizes, but to understand the effects of additives on the crystallization process becomes complicated as additives change the perovskite chemistry and stoichiometry. Herein, we investigated a simple approach that tends to be overlooked, which is the effects of delay time prior to annealing and the annealing temperature itself on the crystallization rate of tin-based perovskite films. By delaying the annealing after spin coating process, and gradually increase the annealing temperature to ensure slow perovskite film formation, we studied the perovskite film formation to elucidate the crystallization process with respect to the annealing temperature. XRD confirmed that the temperature control techniques do not alter the crystal lattice of the perovskite films and SEM showed increase in the grain sizes for the target compared to that of the control. J-V characterization demonstrated that this simple temperature technique can enhance the device performances. Our findings revealed that the effects of temperature at the final stage of tin perovskite film formation is crucial but tends to be disregarded.
Funding from SMARTLINE-PV Project from the Horizon Europe Framework Programme (HORIZON) under the grant agreement number 101122327 is acknowledged by the authors.
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